Mathematical Foundations III is the third and final course in a sequence specially crafted for adults seeking the most direct path to prepare for university math courses. Building on the advanced algebra and basic calculus covered in Mathematical Foundations II, students in Mathematical Foundations III dive deep into the calculus, linear algebra, advanced trigonometry, probability/statistics, and other subjects that form the basis of many higher-level university courses. Upon completing Mathematical Foundations III, students will be prepared to take university-level math courses such as Mathematics for Machine Learning, Linear Algebra, Multivariable Calculus, and Methods of Proof.
Learn advanced calculus techniques for computing limits, derivatives, and integrals, and apply calculus to solve problems in the context of related rates, optimization, particle motion, and differential equations. Dive deeper into complex numbers, vectors, matrices, parametric and polar curves, probability, and statistics.
| 1.1.1. | Expressing an Arithmetic Series in Sigma Notation | |
| 1.1.2. | Finding the Sum of an Arithmetic Series | |
| 1.1.3. | Finding the First Term of an Arithmetic Series | |
| 1.1.4. | Calculating the Number of Terms in an Arithmetic Series |
| 1.2.1. | The Sum of a Finite Geometric Series | |
| 1.2.2. | The Sum of the First N Terms of a Geometric Series | |
| 1.2.3. | Writing Geometric Series in Sigma Notation | |
| 1.2.4. | Finding the Sum of a Geometric Series Given in Sigma Notation |
| 1.3.1. | Pascal's Triangle and the Binomial Coefficients | |
| 1.3.2. | Expanding a Binomial Using Binomial Coefficients | |
| 1.3.3. | The Special Case of the Binomial Theorem | |
| 1.3.4. | Approximating Values Using the Binomial Theorem |
| 2.4.1. | Solving Elementary Quadratic Inequalities | |
| 2.4.2. | Solving Quadratic Inequalities From Graphs | |
| 2.4.3. | Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Graphical Method | |
| 2.4.4. | Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Sign Table Method | |
| 2.4.5. | Inequalities Involving Powers of Binomials | |
| 2.4.6. | Solving Polynomial Inequalities Using a Graphical Method | |
| 2.4.7. | Solving Polynomial Inequalities Using the Sign Table Method | |
| 2.4.8. | Solving Rational Inequalities | |
| 2.4.9. | Solving Inequalities Involving Exponential Functions and Polynomials | |
| 2.4.10. | Solving Radical Inequalities | |
| 2.4.11. | Solving Inequalities Involving Exponential Functions | |
| 2.4.12. | Solving Inequalities Involving Logarithmic Functions | |
| 2.4.13. | Solving Inequalities Involving Geometric Sequences |
| 2.5.1. | Graphing Strict Two-Variable Linear Inequalities | |
| 2.5.2. | Graphing Non-Strict Two-Variable Linear Inequalities | |
| 2.5.3. | Further Graphing of Two-Variable Linear Inequalities | |
| 2.5.4. | Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities | |
| 2.5.5. | Solving Two-Variable Nonlinear Inequalities | |
| 2.5.6. | Further Solving of Two-Variable Nonlinear Inequalities |
| 3.6.1. | Graphing Curves Defined Parametrically | |
| 3.6.2. | Cartesian Equations of Parametric Curves | |
| 3.6.3. | Finding Intersections of Parametric Curves and Lines | |
| 3.6.4. | Differentiating Parametric Curves | |
| 3.6.5. | Calculating Tangent and Normal Lines with Parametric Equations | |
| 3.6.6. | Second Derivatives of Parametric Equations | |
| 3.6.7. | The Arc Length of a Parametric Curve |
| 3.7.1. | Introduction to Polar Coordinates | |
| 3.7.2. | Converting from Polar Coordinates to Cartesian Coordinates | |
| 3.7.3. | Polar Equations of Circles Centered at the Origin | |
| 3.7.4. | Polar Equations of Radial Lines | |
| 3.7.5. | Differentiating Curves Given in Polar Form | |
| 3.7.6. | Further Differentiation of Curves Given in Polar Form | |
| 3.7.7. | Finding the Area of a Polar Region | |
| 3.7.8. | The Arc Length of a Polar Curve |
| 4.8.1. | Circles in the Coordinate Plane | |
| 4.8.2. | Equations of Circles Centered at the Origin | |
| 4.8.3. | Equations of Circles | |
| 4.8.4. | Determining Circle Properties by Completing the Square | |
| 4.8.5. | Calculating Circle Intercepts | |
| 4.8.6. | Intersections of Circles with Lines | |
| 4.8.7. | Parametric Equations of Circles |
| 4.9.1. | Upward and Downward Opening Parabolas | |
| 4.9.2. | Left and Right Opening Parabolas | |
| 4.9.3. | The Vertex of a Parabola | |
| 4.9.4. | Calculating the Vertex of a Parabola by Completing the Square | |
| 4.9.5. | Calculating Intercepts of Parabolas | |
| 4.9.6. | Parametric Equations of Parabolas | |
| 4.9.7. | Parametric Equations of Parabolas Centered at (h,k) |
| 4.10.1. | Introduction to Ellipses | |
| 4.10.2. | Equations of Ellipses Centered at the Origin | |
| 4.10.3. | Equations of Ellipses Centered at a General Point | |
| 4.10.4. | Finding the Center and Axes of Ellipses by Completing the Square | |
| 4.10.5. | Finding Intercepts of Ellipses | |
| 4.10.6. | Parametric Equations of Ellipses |
| 4.11.1. | Equations of Hyperbolas Centered at the Origin | |
| 4.11.2. | Equations of Hyperbolas Centered at a General Point | |
| 4.11.3. | Asymptotes of Hyperbolas Centered at the Origin | |
| 4.11.4. | Asymptotes of Hyperbolas Centered at a General Point | |
| 4.11.5. | Finding Intercepts and Intersections of Hyperbolas | |
| 4.11.6. | Parametric Equations of Horizontal Hyperbolas | |
| 4.11.7. | Parametric Equations of Vertical Hyperbolas |
| 5.12.1. | Graphing the Inverse Sine Function | |
| 5.12.2. | Graphing the Inverse Cosine Function | |
| 5.12.3. | Graphing the Inverse Tangent Function | |
| 5.12.4. | Evaluating Expressions Containing Inverse Trigonometric Functions | |
| 5.12.5. | Limits of Inverse Trigonometric Functions |
| 5.13.1. | Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Sine | |
| 5.13.2. | Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Cosine | |
| 5.13.3. | Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Tangent | |
| 5.13.4. | Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Secant | |
| 5.13.5. | Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Cosecant | |
| 5.13.6. | Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Cotangent | |
| 5.13.7. | Solving Trigonometric Equations Using the Sin-Cos-Tan Identity | |
| 5.13.8. | General Solutions of Elementary Trigonometric Equations | |
| 5.13.9. | General Solutions of Trigonometric Equations With Transformed Functions | |
| 5.13.10. | Trigonometric Equations Containing Transformed Tangent Functions |
| 5.14.1. | Simplifying Expressions Using Basic Trigonometric Identities | |
| 5.14.2. | Simplifying Expressions Using the Pythagorean Identity | |
| 5.14.3. | Alternate Forms of the Pythagorean Identity | |
| 5.14.4. | Simplifying Expressions Using the Secant-Tangent Identity | |
| 5.14.5. | Alternate Forms of the Secant-Tangent Identity | |
| 5.14.6. | Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions Using the Cotangent-Cosecant Identity |
| 5.15.1. | The Sum and Difference Formulas for Sine | |
| 5.15.2. | The Sum and Difference Formulas for Cosine | |
| 5.15.3. | Writing Sums of Trigonometric Functions in Amplitude-Phase Form | |
| 5.15.4. | The Double-Angle Formula for Sine | |
| 5.15.5. | The Double-Angle Formula for Cosine |
| 6.16.1. | The Complex Conjugate | |
| 6.16.2. | Special Properties of the Complex Conjugate | |
| 6.16.3. | The Complex Conjugate and the Roots of a Quadratic Equation | |
| 6.16.4. | Dividing Complex Numbers | |
| 6.16.5. | Solving Equations by Equating Real and Imaginary Parts | |
| 6.16.6. | Extending Polynomial Identities to the Complex Numbers |
| 6.17.1. | The Polar Form of a Complex Number | |
| 6.17.2. | De Moivre's Theorem | |
| 6.17.3. | Euler's Formula | |
| 6.17.4. | The Roots of Unity | |
| 6.17.5. | Properties of Roots of Unity |
| 6.18.1. | The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra for Quadratic Equations | |
| 6.18.2. | The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra with Cubic Equations | |
| 6.18.3. | Solving Cubic Equations With Complex Roots | |
| 6.18.4. | The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra with Quartic Equations | |
| 6.18.5. | Solving Quartic Equations With Complex Roots |
| 7.19.1. | L'Hopital's Rule | |
| 7.19.2. | Limits of Sequences | |
| 7.19.3. | Special Limits Involving Sine | |
| 7.19.4. | Limits Involving the Exponential Function | |
| 7.19.5. | Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions | |
| 7.19.6. | Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions | |
| 7.19.7. | Calculating Limits of Radical Functions Using Conjugate Multiplication | |
| 7.19.8. | Evaluating Limits at Infinity by Comparing Relative Magnitudes of Functions |
| 7.20.1. | Continuity of Functions | |
| 7.20.2. | The Intermediate Value Theorem |
| 8.21.1. | Implicit Differentiation | |
| 8.21.2. | Calculating Slopes of Circles, Ellipses, and Parabolas | |
| 8.21.3. | Calculating dy/dx Using dx/dy | |
| 8.21.4. | Differentiating Inverse Functions | |
| 8.21.5. | Differentiating an Inverse Function at a Point | |
| 8.21.6. | Differentiating Inverse Trigonometric Functions | |
| 8.21.7. | Differentiating Inverse Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions | |
| 8.21.8. | Integration Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions |
| 8.22.1. | Connecting Differentiability and Continuity | |
| 8.22.2. | The Mean Value Theorem | |
| 8.22.3. | Global vs. Local Extrema and Critical Points | |
| 8.22.4. | The Extreme Value Theorem | |
| 8.22.5. | Using Differentiation to Calculate Critical Points | |
| 8.22.6. | Determining Intervals on Which a Function Is Increasing or Decreasing | |
| 8.22.7. | Using the First Derivative Test to Classify Local Extrema | |
| 8.22.8. | The Candidates Test | |
| 8.22.9. | Intervals of Concavity | |
| 8.22.10. | Relating Concavity to the Second Derivative | |
| 8.22.11. | Points of Inflection | |
| 8.22.12. | The Second Derivative Test | |
| 8.22.13. | Approximating Functions Using Local Linearity and Linearization | |
| 8.22.14. | Second-Degree Taylor Polynomials |
| 8.23.1. | Estimating Derivatives Using a Forward Difference Quotient | |
| 8.23.2. | Estimating Derivatives Using a Backward Difference Quotient | |
| 8.23.3. | Estimating Derivatives Using a Central Difference Quotient |
| 9.24.1. | Approximating Areas With the Left Riemann Sum | |
| 9.24.2. | Approximating Areas With the Right Riemann Sum | |
| 9.24.3. | Left and Right Riemann Sums in Sigma Notation |
| 9.25.1. | Defining Definite Integrals Using Left and Right Riemann Sums | |
| 9.25.2. | The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus | |
| 9.25.3. | Applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to Exponential and Trigonometric Functions | |
| 9.25.4. | The Sum and Constant Multiple Rules for Definite Integrals | |
| 9.25.5. | Properties of Definite Integrals Involving the Limits of Integration |
| 9.26.1. | The Area Bounded by a Curve and the X-Axis | |
| 9.26.2. | The Area Bounded by a Curve and the Y-Axis | |
| 9.26.3. | Evaluating Definite Integrals Using Symmetry | |
| 9.26.4. | Finding the Area Between a Curve and the X-Axis When They Intersect | |
| 9.26.5. | Calculating the Definite Integral of a Function Given Its Graph | |
| 9.26.6. | Definite Integrals of Piecewise Functions |
| 9.27.1. | The Integral as an Accumulation Function | |
| 9.27.2. | The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus |
| 9.28.1. | The Average Value of a Function | |
| 9.28.2. | The Area Between Curves Expressed as Functions of X | |
| 9.28.3. | The Arc Length of a Planar Curve |
| 10.29.1. | Integrating Algebraic Functions Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.2. | Integrating Linear Rational Functions Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.3. | Integration Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.4. | Calculating Definite Integrals Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.5. | Further Integration of Algebraic Functions Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.6. | Integrating Exponential Functions Using Linear Substitution | |
| 10.29.7. | Integrating Exponential Functions Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.8. | Integrating Trigonometric Functions Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.9. | Integrating Logarithmic Functions Using Substitution | |
| 10.29.10. | Integration by Substitution With Inverse Trigonometric Functions |
| 10.30.1. | Integration Using Basic Trigonometric Identities | |
| 10.30.2. | Integration Using the Pythagorean Identities | |
| 10.30.3. | Integration Using the Double-Angle Formulas |
| 10.31.1. | Integrating Functions Using Polynomial Division | |
| 10.31.2. | Integrating Functions by Completing the Square |
| 10.32.1. | Introduction to Integration by Parts | |
| 10.32.2. | Using Integration by Parts to Calculate Integrals With Logarithms | |
| 10.32.3. | Applying the Integration By Parts Twice | |
| 10.32.4. | Integration by Parts in Cyclic Cases |
| 10.33.1. | Expressing Rational Functions as Sums of Partial Fractions | |
| 10.33.2. | Expressing Rational Functions with Repeated Factors as Sums of Partial Fractions | |
| 10.33.3. | Expressing Rational Functions with Irreducible Quadratic Factors as Sums of Partial Fractions | |
| 10.33.4. | Integrating Rational Functions Using Partial Fractions | |
| 10.33.5. | Integrating Rational Functions with Repeated Factors | |
| 10.33.6. | Integrating Rational Functions with Irreducible Quadratic Factors |
| 10.34.1. | Improper Integrals | |
| 10.34.2. | Improper Integrals Involving Exponential Functions | |
| 10.34.3. | Improper Integrals Involving Arctangent | |
| 10.34.4. | Improper Integrals Over the Real Line |
| 11.35.1. | Calculating Velocity for Straight-Line Motion Using Differentiation | |
| 11.35.2. | Calculating Acceleration for Straight-Line Motion Using Differentiation | |
| 11.35.3. | Determining Characteristics of Moving Objects Using Differentiation | |
| 11.35.4. | Calculating Velocity Using Integration | |
| 11.35.5. | Determining Characteristics of Moving Objects Using Integration | |
| 11.35.6. | Calculating the Position Function of a Particle Using Integration | |
| 11.35.7. | Calculating the Displacement of a Particle Using Integration |
| 11.36.1. | Velocity and Acceleration for Plane Motion | |
| 11.36.2. | Calculating Displacement for Plane Motion | |
| 11.36.3. | Calculating Velocity for Plane Motion Using Differentiation | |
| 11.36.4. | Calculating Acceleration for Plane Motion Using Differentiation | |
| 11.36.5. | Finding Velocity Vectors in Two Dimensions Using Integration | |
| 11.36.6. | Finding Displacement Vectors in Two Dimensions Using Integration |
| 11.37.1. | Rates of Change in Applied Contexts | |
| 11.37.2. | Introduction to Related Rates | |
| 11.37.3. | Related Rates With Implicit Functions | |
| 11.37.4. | Calculating Related Rates With Circles and Spheres | |
| 11.37.5. | Calculating Related Rates Using the Pythagorean Theorem | |
| 11.37.6. | Solving Optimization Problems Using Derivatives | |
| 11.37.7. | Optimizing Distances | |
| 11.37.8. | Optimizing Distances to Curves |
| 12.38.1. | Introduction to Differential Equations | |
| 12.38.2. | Verifying Solutions of Differential Equations | |
| 12.38.3. | Solving Differential Equations Using Direct Integration | |
| 12.38.4. | Solving First-Order ODEs Using Separation of Variables | |
| 12.38.5. | Solving Initial Value Problems Using Separation of Variables | |
| 12.38.6. | Qualitative Analysis of Differential Equations | |
| 12.38.7. | Modeling With Differential Equations |
| 12.39.1. | Euler's Method: Calculating One Step | |
| 12.39.2. | Euler's Method: Calculating Multiple Steps |
| 13.40.1. | Three-Dimensional Vectors in Component Form | |
| 13.40.2. | Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Cartesian Vectors in 3D | |
| 13.40.3. | Calculating the Magnitude of Cartesian Vectors in 3D |
| 13.41.1. | Calculating the Dot Product Using Angle and Magnitude | |
| 13.41.2. | Calculating the Dot Product Using Components | |
| 13.41.3. | The Angle Between Two Vectors | |
| 13.41.4. | Calculating a Scalar Projection | |
| 13.41.5. | Calculating a Vector Projection |
| 13.42.1. | The Cross Product of Two Vectors | |
| 13.42.2. | Properties of the Cross Product | |
| 13.42.3. | Calculating the Cross Product Using Determinants | |
| 13.42.4. | Finding Areas Using the Cross Product | |
| 13.42.5. | The Scalar Triple Product | |
| 13.42.6. | Volumes of Parallelepipeds |
| 13.43.1. | Defining Vector-Valued Functions | |
| 13.43.2. | Differentiating Vector-Valued Functions | |
| 13.43.3. | Integrating Vector-Valued Functions |
| 14.44.1. | Introduction to Matrices | |
| 14.44.2. | Index Notation for Matrices | |
| 14.44.3. | Adding and Subtracting Matrices | |
| 14.44.4. | Properties of Matrix Addition | |
| 14.44.5. | Scalar Multiplication of Matrices | |
| 14.44.6. | Zero, Square, Diagonal and Identity Matrices | |
| 14.44.7. | The Transpose of a Matrix |
| 14.45.1. | Multiplying a Matrix by a Column Vector | |
| 14.45.2. | Multiplying Square Matrices | |
| 14.45.3. | Conformability for Matrix Multiplication | |
| 14.45.4. | Multiplying Matrices | |
| 14.45.5. | Powers of Matrices | |
| 14.45.6. | Multiplying a Matrix by the Identity Matrix | |
| 14.45.7. | Properties of Matrix Multiplication | |
| 14.45.8. | Representing 2x2 Systems of Equations Using a Matrix Product | |
| 14.45.9. | Representing 3x3 Systems of Equations Using a Matrix Product |
| 14.46.1. | The Determinant of a 2x2 Matrix | |
| 14.46.2. | The Geometric Interpretation of the 2x2 Determinant | |
| 14.46.3. | The Minors of a 3x3 Matrix | |
| 14.46.4. | The Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix |
| 14.47.1. | Introduction to the Inverse of a Matrix | |
| 14.47.2. | Inverses of 2x2 Matrices | |
| 14.47.3. | Calculating the Inverse of a 3x3 Matrix Using the Cofactor Method | |
| 14.47.4. | Solving 2x2 Systems of Equations Using Inverse Matrices | |
| 14.47.5. | Solving Systems of Equations Using Inverse Matrices |
| 14.48.1. | Introduction to Linear Transformations | |
| 14.48.2. | The Standard Matrix of a Linear Transformation | |
| 14.48.3. | Linear Transformations of Points and Lines in the Plane | |
| 14.48.4. | Linear Transformations of Objects in the Plane | |
| 14.48.5. | Dilations and Reflections as Linear Transformations | |
| 14.48.6. | Shear and Stretch as Linear Transformations | |
| 14.48.7. | Right-Angle Rotations as Linear Transformations | |
| 14.48.8. | Rotations as Linear Transformations | |
| 14.48.9. | Combining Linear Transformations Using 2x2 Matrices | |
| 14.48.10. | Inverting Linear Transformations | |
| 14.48.11. | Area Scale Factors of Linear Transformations | |
| 14.48.12. | Singular Linear Transformations in the Plane |
| 15.49.1. | Conditional Probabilities From Venn Diagrams | |
| 15.49.2. | The Multiplication Law for Conditional Probability | |
| 15.49.3. | The Law of Total Probability | |
| 15.49.4. | Independent Events | |
| 15.49.5. | The Addition Law of Probability | |
| 15.49.6. | Applying the Addition Law With Event Complements | |
| 15.49.7. | Mutually Exclusive Events |
| 15.50.1. | Probability Mass Functions of Discrete Random Variables | |
| 15.50.2. | Cumulative Distribution Functions for Discrete Random Variables | |
| 15.50.3. | Expected Values of Discrete Random Variables | |
| 15.50.4. | The Binomial Distribution | |
| 15.50.5. | Modeling With the Binomial Distribution | |
| 15.50.6. | The Geometric Distribution | |
| 15.50.7. | Modeling With the Geometric Distribution |
| 15.51.1. | The Standard Normal Distribution | |
| 15.51.2. | Symmetry Properties of the Standard Normal Distribution | |
| 15.51.3. | The Normal Distribution | |
| 15.51.4. | Mean and Variance of the Normal Distribution | |
| 15.51.5. | Percentage Points of the Standard Normal Distribution | |
| 15.51.6. | Modeling With the Normal Distribution |
