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Precalculus

Our fully accredited Common-Core aligned Precalculus course builds upon the strong foundations formed in Algebra II, further developing students' knowledge and skills in algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. In addition, students begin their journey into higher-level probability and statistics and explore new mathematical objects, namely vectors, matrices, and random variables. Upon completing this course, students will have gained all the necessary tools to study calculus and other foundational college-level courses successfully.

Overview

Outcomes

Content

A strong understanding of sequences and series is essential for success in calculus and beyond. In this course, students build on their knowledge of sequences to include arithmetic series, finite geometric series, and the binomial theorem. They will become fluent in solving various problems relating to these series and apply their knowledge to model situations in context.

Strong knowledge of inequalities and their solutions is another crucial component when studying college-level mathematics. In this course, students build on existing knowledge of functions to solve various types of inequalities, including quadratic, polynomial, rational, and two-variable nonlinear inequalities.

In this course, students further develop the knowledge gained in Algebra II to carry out deep explorations of trigonometric functions. They will learn to derive and apply trigonometric identities, solve trigonometric equations, and explore inverse trigonometric functions.

At this level, students experience their first taste of alternatives to the Cartesian coordinate system, exploring the basics of parametric and polar coordinates. They will learn how to convert to and from Cartesian coordinates and plot simple curves in these coordinate systems.

Students explore advanced mathematical objects such as vectors and matrices at this level. Students will master vector addition, scalar multiplication and learn about different types of vector products. They will learn to apply various operations to matrices and explore determinants. In addition, they will use these ideas to solve geometric problems involving length, angle, area, and volume. Students will also gain a concrete understanding of linear transformations in the plane and relate these operations to their current knowledge of transformations.

Students take their knowledge of complex numbers to new depths by exploring De Moivre's theorem, Euler's theorem, and the fundamental theorem of algebra. They will also explore how operations on complex numbers can be interpreted as transformations of vectors in the complex plane.

Students complete their understanding of the four conic sections to include ellipses and hyperbolas. In addition, students achieve mastery of rational functions, including sketching their graphs and describing properties.

Finally, students will explore advanced concepts in probability, statistics, and combinatorics. This includes conditional probability, discrete random variables, the normal distribution, correlation, and regression.

Upon successful completion of this course, students will have mastered the following:
1.
Sequences and Series
18 topics
1.1. Arithmetic Series
 1.1.1. Sigma Notation
1.1.2. Properties of Finite Series
1.1.3. Expressing an Arithmetic Series in Sigma Notation
1.1.4. Finding the Sum of an Arithmetic Series
1.1.5. Finding the First Term of an Arithmetic Series
1.1.6. Calculating the Number of Terms in an Arithmetic Series
1.1.7. Modeling With Arithmetic Series
1.2. Finite Geometric Series
 1.2.1. The Sum of a Finite Geometric Series
1.2.2. The Sum of the First N Terms of a Geometric Series
1.2.3. Writing Geometric Series in Sigma Notation
1.2.4. Sums of Finite Geometric Series Given in Sigma Notation
1.2.5. Solving Geometric Series Problems Using Exponential Equations and Inequalities
1.2.6. Modeling With Geometric Series
1.2.7. Modeling Financial Problems Using Geometric Series
1.3. The Binomial Theorem
 1.3.1. Pascal's Triangle and the Binomial Coefficients
1.3.2. Expanding a Binomial Using Binomial Coefficients
1.3.3. The Special Case of the Binomial Theorem
1.3.4. Approximating Values Using the Binomial Theorem
2.
Rational Functions
16 topics
2.4. Rational Expressions and Equations
 2.4.1. Closure Properties of Polynomials
2.4.2. Closure Properties of Rational Expressions
2.4.3. Rational Equations With Three Terms
2.4.4. Advanced Rational Equations
2.4.5. Further Advanced Rational Equations
2.5. Rational Functions
 2.5.1. Roots of Rational Functions
2.5.2. Vertical Asymptotes of Rational Functions
2.5.3. Locating Holes in Rational Functions
2.5.4. Horizontal Asymptotes of Rational Functions
2.5.5. End Behavior of Rational Functions
2.5.6. Infinite Limits of Rational Functions
2.5.7. Infinite Limits of Rational Functions: Advanced Cases
2.5.8. The Domain and Range of a Rational Function
2.5.9. Identifying a Rational Function From a Graph
2.5.10. Identifying a Rational Function From a Graph Containing Holes
2.5.11. Identifying the Graph of a Rational Function
3.
Inequalities
19 topics
3.6. Quadratic Inequalities
 3.6.1. Solving Elementary Quadratic Inequalities
3.6.2. Solving Quadratic Inequalities From Graphs
3.6.3. Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Graphical Method
3.6.4. Solving Quadratic Inequalities Using the Sign Table Method
3.6.5. Solving Discriminant Problems Using Quadratic Inequalities
3.7. Polynomial Inequalities
 3.7.1. Inequalities Involving Powers of Binomials
3.7.2. Solving Polynomial Inequalities Using a Graphical Method
3.7.3. Solving Polynomial Inequalities Using Special Factoring Techniques and the Graphical Method
3.7.4. Solving Polynomial Inequalities Using the Sign Table Method
3.8. Non-Polynomial Inequalities
 3.8.1. Solving Radical Inequalities
3.8.2. Solving Inequalities Involving Exponential Functions
3.8.3. Solving Inequalities Involving Logarithmic Functions
3.8.4. Solving Inequalities Involving Exponential Functions and Polynomials
3.8.5. Solving Inequalities Involving Positive and Negative Factors
3.8.6. Solving Inequalities Involving Geometric Sequences
3.8.7. Solving Rational Inequalities
3.8.8. Further Solving of Rational Inequalities
3.8.9. Solving Two-Variable Nonlinear Inequalities
3.8.10. Further Solving of Two-Variable Nonlinear Inequalities
4.
Trigonometry
42 topics
4.9. The Inverse Trigonometric Functions
 4.9.1. Graphing the Inverse Sine Function
4.9.2. Graphing the Inverse Cosine Function
4.9.3. Graphing the Inverse Tangent Function
4.9.4. Evaluating Expressions Containing Inverse Trigonometric Functions
4.9.5. Further Evaluating Expressions Containing Inverse Trigonometric Functions
4.10. Trigonometric Identities
 4.10.1. Simplifying Expressions Using Basic Trigonometric Identities
4.10.2. Simplifying Expressions Using the Pythagorean Identity
4.10.3. Alternate Forms of the Pythagorean Identity
4.10.4. Simplifying Expressions Using the Secant-Tangent Identity
4.10.5. Alternate Forms of the Secant-Tangent Identity
4.10.6. Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions Using the Cotangent-Cosecant Identity
4.10.7. Simplifying Trigonometric Expressions Using Cofunction Identities
4.11. The Sum and Difference Formulas
 4.11.1. The Sum and Difference Formulas for Sine
4.11.2. The Sum and Difference Formulas for Cosine
4.11.3. The Sum and Difference Formulas for Tangent
4.11.4. Calculating Trigonometric Ratios Using the Sum Formula for Sine
4.11.5. Calculating Trigonometric Ratios Using the Sum Formula for Cosine
4.11.6. Calculating Trigonometric Ratios Using the Sum Formula for Tangent
4.11.7. Writing Sums of Trigonometric Functions in Amplitude-Phase Form
4.12. The Double-Angle Formulas
 4.12.1. The Double-Angle Formula for Sine
4.12.2. Verifying Trigonometric Identities Using the Double-Angle Formula for Sine
4.12.3. Using the Double-Angle Formula for Sine With the Pythagorean Theorem
4.12.4. The Double-Angle Formula for Cosine
4.12.5. Verifying Trigonometric Identities Using the Double-Angle Formulas for Cosine
4.12.6. Finding Exact Values of Trigonometric Expressions Using the Double-Angle Formulas for Cosine
4.12.7. Simplifying Expressions Using the Double-Angle Formula for Tangent
4.12.8. Verifying Trigonometric Identities Using the Double-Angle Formula for Tangent
4.13. Elementary Trigonometric Equations
 4.13.1. Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Sine
4.13.2. Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Cosine
4.13.3. Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Tangent
4.13.4. Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Secant
4.13.5. Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Cosecant
4.13.6. Elementary Trigonometric Equations Containing Cotangent
4.13.7. General Solutions of Elementary Trigonometric Equations
4.14. Trigonometric Equations Containing Transformed Functions
 4.14.1. General Solutions of Trigonometric Equations With Transformed Functions
4.14.2. Trigonometric Equations Containing Transformed Sine Functions
4.14.3. Trigonometric Equations Containing Transformed Cosine Functions
4.14.4. Trigonometric Equations Containing Transformed Tangent Functions
4.15. Advanced Trigonometric Equations
 4.15.1. Solving Trigonometric Equations Using the Sin-Cos-Tan Identity
4.15.2. Solving Trigonometric Equations Using the Zero-Product Property
4.15.3. Quadratic Trigonometric Equations Containing Sine or Cosine
4.15.4. Quadratic Trigonometric Equations Containing Tangent or Cotangent
5.
Vectors
30 topics
5.16. Introduction to Vectors
 5.16.1. Introduction to Vectors
5.16.2. The Triangle Law for the Addition of Two Vectors
5.16.3. The Magnitude of a Vector
5.16.4. Problem Solving Using Vector Diagrams
5.16.5. Parallel Vectors
5.16.6. Unit Vectors
5.16.7. Linear Combinations of Vectors and Their Properties
5.16.8. Describing the Position Vector of a Point Using Known Vectors
5.17. Vectors in 2D Cartesian Coordinates
 5.17.1. Two-Dimensional Vectors Expressed in Component Form
5.17.2. Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Cartesian Vectors in 2D
5.17.3. Calculating the Magnitude of Cartesian Vectors in 2D
5.17.4. Calculating the Direction of Cartesian Vectors in 2D
5.17.5. Calculating the Components of Cartesian Vectors in 2D
5.17.6. Velocity and Acceleration for Plane Motion
5.17.7. Calculating Displacement for Plane Motion
5.18. Vectors in 3D Cartesian Coordinates
 5.18.1. Three-Dimensional Vectors in Component Form
5.18.2. Addition and Scalar Multiplication of Cartesian Vectors in 3D
5.18.3. Calculating the Magnitude of Cartesian Vectors in 3D
5.19. The Dot Product
 5.19.1. Calculating the Dot Product Using Angle and Magnitude
5.19.2. Calculating the Dot Product Using Components
5.19.3. The Angle Between Two Vectors
5.19.4. Calculating a Scalar Projection
5.19.5. Calculating a Vector Projection
5.20. The Cross Product
 5.20.1. The Cross Product of Two Vectors
5.20.2. Properties of the Cross Product
5.20.3. Calculating the Cross Product Using Determinants
5.20.4. Finding Areas Using the Cross Product
5.20.5. The Scalar Triple Product
5.20.6. Volumes of Parallelepipeds
5.20.7. Finding Volumes of Tetrahedrons and Pyramids Using Vector Products
6.
Matrices
37 topics
6.21. Introduction to Matrices
 6.21.1. Introduction to Matrices
6.21.2. Index Notation for Matrices
6.21.3. Adding and Subtracting Matrices
6.21.4. Properties of Matrix Addition
6.21.5. Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
6.21.6. Zero, Square, Diagonal and Identity Matrices
6.21.7. The Transpose of a Matrix
6.22. Matrix Multiplication
 6.22.1. Multiplying a Matrix by a Column Vector
6.22.2. Multiplying Square Matrices
6.22.3. Conformability for Matrix Multiplication
6.22.4. Multiplying Matrices
6.22.5. Powers of Matrices
6.22.6. Multiplying a Matrix by the Identity Matrix
6.22.7. Properties of Matrix Multiplication
6.22.8. Representing 2x2 Systems of Equations Using a Matrix Product
6.22.9. Representing 3x3 Systems of Equations Using a Matrix Product
6.23. Determinants
 6.23.1. The Determinant of a 2x2 Matrix
6.23.2. The Geometric Interpretation of the 2x2 Determinant
6.23.3. The Minors of a 3x3 Matrix
6.23.4. The Determinant of a 3x3 Matrix
6.24. The Inverse of a Matrix
 6.24.1. Introduction to the Inverse of a Matrix
6.24.2. Inverses of 2x2 Matrices
6.24.3. Calculating the Inverse of a 3x3 Matrix Using the Cofactor Method
6.24.4. Solving 2x2 Systems of Equations Using Inverse Matrices
6.24.5. Solving Systems of Equations Using Inverse Matrices
6.25. Linear Transformations
 6.25.1. Introduction to Linear Transformations
6.25.2. The Standard Matrix of a Linear Transformation
6.25.3. Linear Transformations of Points and Lines in the Plane
6.25.4. Linear Transformations of Objects in the Plane
6.25.5. Dilations and Reflections as Linear Transformations
6.25.6. Shear and Stretch as Linear Transformations
6.25.7. Right-Angle Rotations as Linear Transformations
6.25.8. Rotations as Linear Transformations
6.25.9. Combining Linear Transformations Using 2x2 Matrices
6.25.10. Inverting Linear Transformations
6.25.11. Area Scale Factors of Linear Transformations
6.25.12. Singular Linear Transformations in the Plane
7.
Conic Sections
20 topics
7.26. Ellipses as Conic Sections
 7.26.1. Introduction to Ellipses
7.26.2. Equations of Ellipses Centered at the Origin
7.26.3. Equations of Ellipses Centered at a General Point
7.26.4. Finding the Center and Axes of Ellipses by Completing the Square
7.26.5. Finding Intercepts of Ellipses
7.26.6. Finding Intersections of Ellipses and Lines
7.26.7. Foci of Ellipses
7.26.8. Vertices and Eccentricity of Ellipses
7.26.9. Directrices of Ellipses
7.26.10. The Area of an Ellipse
7.27. Hyperbolas as Conic Sections
 7.27.1. Equations of Hyperbolas Centered at the Origin
7.27.2. Equations of Hyperbolas Centered at a General Point
7.27.3. Asymptotes of Hyperbolas Centered at the Origin
7.27.4. Asymptotes of Hyperbolas Centered at a General Point
7.27.5. Finding Intercepts and Intersections of Hyperbolas
7.27.6. Transverse Axes of Hyperbolas
7.27.7. Conjugate Axes of Hyperbolas
7.27.8. Foci of Hyperbolas
7.27.9. Eccentricity and Vertices of Hyperbolas
7.27.10. Directrices of Hyperbolas
8.
Parametric Equations
10 topics
8.28. Parametric Equations
 8.28.1. Graphing Curves Defined Parametrically
8.28.2. Cartesian Equations of Parametric Curves
8.28.3. Finding Intercepts of Curves Defined Parametrically
8.28.4. Finding Intersections of Parametric Curves and Lines
8.28.5. Parametric Equations of Circles
8.28.6. Parametric Equations of Ellipses
8.28.7. Parametric Equations of Parabolas
8.28.8. Parametric Equations of Parabolas Centered at (h,k)
8.28.9. Parametric Equations of Horizontal Hyperbolas
8.28.10. Parametric Equations of Vertical Hyperbolas
9.
Polar Equations
6 topics
9.29. Polar Coordinates
 9.29.1. Introduction to Polar Coordinates
9.29.2. Converting from Polar Coordinates to Cartesian Coordinates
9.29.3. Polar Equations of Circles Centered at the Origin
9.29.4. Polar Equations of Radial Lines
9.29.5. Polar Equations of Circles Centered on the Coordinate Axes
9.29.6. Finding Intersections of Polar Curves
10.
Complex Numbers
28 topics
10.30. The Complex Plane
 10.30.1. The Complex Plane
10.30.2. The Magnitude of a Complex Number
10.30.3. The Argument of a Complex Number
10.30.4. Arithmetic in the Complex Plane
10.30.5. Geometry in the Complex Plane
10.31. Further Complex Numbers
 10.31.1. The Complex Conjugate
10.31.2. Special Properties of the Complex Conjugate
10.31.3. The Complex Conjugate and the Roots of a Quadratic Equation
10.31.4. Dividing Complex Numbers
10.31.5. Solving Equations by Equating Real and Imaginary Parts
10.31.6. Extending Polynomial Identities to the Complex Numbers
10.32. Complex Numbers in Polar Form
 10.32.1. The Polar Form of a Complex Number
10.32.2. Products of Complex Numbers Expressed in Polar Form
10.32.3. Quotients of Complex Numbers Expressed in Polar Form
10.32.4. The CIS Notation
10.33. De Moivre's Theorem
 10.33.1. De Moivre's Theorem
10.33.2. Finding Powers of Complex Numbers Using De Moivre's Theorem
10.33.3. The Power-Reducing Formulas for Sine and Cosine
10.33.4. Euler's Formula
10.33.5. The Roots of Unity
10.33.6. Properties of Roots of Unity
10.33.7. Square Roots of Complex Numbers
10.33.8. Higher Roots of Complex Numbers
10.34. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
 10.34.1. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra for Quadratic Equations
10.34.2. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra with Cubic Equations
10.34.3. Solving Cubic Equations With Complex Roots
10.34.4. The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra with Quartic Equations
10.34.5. Solving Quartic Equations With Complex Roots
11.
Probability & Combinatorics
45 topics
11.35. Introduction to Probability
 11.35.1. Sets
11.35.2. Probability From Experimental Data
11.35.3. Sample Spaces and Events in Probability
11.35.4. Single Events in Probability
11.35.5. The Complement of an Event
11.35.6. Venn Diagrams in Probability
11.35.7. Geometric Probability
11.36. Compound Events in Probability
 11.36.1. The Union of Sets
11.36.2. The Intersection of Sets
11.36.3. Compound Events in Probability From Experimental Data
11.36.4. Computing Probabilities for Compound Events Using Venn Diagrams
11.36.5. Computing Probabilities of Events Containing Complements Using Venn Diagrams
11.36.6. Computing Probabilities for Three Events Using Venn Diagrams
11.36.7. The Addition Law of Probability
11.36.8. Applying the Addition Law With Event Complements
11.36.9. Mutually Exclusive Events
11.37. Conditional Probability
 11.37.1. Conditional Probabilities From Venn Diagrams
11.37.2. Conditional Probabilities From Tables
11.37.3. The Multiplication Law for Conditional Probability
11.37.4. The Law of Total Probability
11.37.5. Tree Diagrams for Dependent Events
11.37.6. Tree Diagrams for Dependent Events: Applications
11.37.7. Independent Events
11.37.8. Tree Diagrams for Independent Events
11.38. Discrete Random Variables
 11.38.1. Probability Mass Functions of Discrete Random Variables
11.38.2. Cumulative Distribution Functions for Discrete Random Variables
11.38.3. Expected Values of Discrete Random Variables
11.38.4. The Binomial Distribution
11.38.5. Modeling With the Binomial Distribution
11.38.6. The Geometric Distribution
11.38.7. Modeling With the Geometric Distribution
11.39. The Normal Distribution
 11.39.1. The Standard Normal Distribution
11.39.2. Symmetry Properties of the Standard Normal Distribution
11.39.3. The Normal Distribution
11.39.4. Mean and Variance of the Normal Distribution
11.39.5. Percentage Points of the Standard Normal Distribution
11.39.6. Modeling With the Normal Distribution
11.39.7. The Empirical Rule for the Normal Distribution
11.40. Combinatorics
 11.40.1. The Rule of Sum and the Rule of Product
11.40.2. Factorials
11.40.3. Factorials in Variable Expressions
11.40.4. Ordering Objects
11.40.5. Permutations
11.40.6. Combinations
11.40.7. Computing Probabilities Using Combinatorics
12.
Statistics
20 topics
12.41. Analyzing Data
 12.41.1. Sampling
12.41.2. The Mean of a Data Set
12.41.3. Variance and Standard Deviation
12.41.4. Estimating Means and Variances For Grouped Data
12.41.5. Covariance
12.41.6. Sums of Squares
12.41.7. The Z-Score
12.42. Correlation
 12.42.1. Scatter Plots
12.42.2. Trend Lines
12.42.3. Making Predictions Using Trend Lines
12.42.4. Interpreting Trend Line Coefficients
12.42.5. Linear Correlation
12.42.6. Residuals and Residual Plots
12.42.7. The Linear Correlation Coefficient
12.42.8. Correlation vs. Causation
12.43. Regression
 12.43.1. Selecting a Regression Model
12.43.2. Linear Regression
12.43.3. Quadratic Regression
12.43.4. Semi-Log Scatter Plots
12.43.5. Exponential Regression